Baseball: The National Pastime in the National Archives

by The National Archives and Records Administration

Our National Pastime in our National Archives

Millions of fans eagerly await the opening of the baseball season in April each year. During the late 19th and 20th centuries, baseball was the most widely played sport in the United States, earning the title ''America's pastime.'' As President Clinton said on the eve of the 1995 World Series, ''Baseball is part of our common heritage.'' The story of baseball and the story of our nation are intertwined. And since the records at the National Archives document our national experience, it only seems natural that stories of both baseball and American history would be discovered among these documents.

But among the numerous records created by the three branches of the Federal Government and preserved at the National Archives, what stories can be found? This book showcases a small slice and tells the story of our national pastime found at the National Archives. The documents that follow provide examples of the role of baseball during the two world wars, fights for mutually agreeable contracts and equal opportunity on and off the playing field, the universal appeal of the game to players and fans (even the ''highest-ranking'' fans of all—U.S. Presidents), improvements to the sport, and celebrations along the way.

Tools of the Trade

Bat, Ball, and Glove

Who were George Rawlings, John Hillerich, or Benjamin Shibe? Without these men the game of baseball would not be what it is today. Each devised improvements to baseball and the tools of the trade—the bat, ball, and glove—and was issued a patent.

Benjamin F. Shibe, one of the original owners of the Philadelphia Athletics and for whom Shibe Park in Philadelphia was named, patented a cork-centered baseball on June 15, 1909. Use of this ball in all 1911 games led to powerful hits that went farther and longer. Shibe, as noted in his patent, had simply wanted increased strength and durability for his baseballs.

John A. Hillerich of Louisville, Kentucky, devised a method to harden the surface of a baseball bat and promote its ability to drive the ball. Issued a patent on December 23, 1902, Hillerich's company would later become Hillerich and Bradsby Company, the maker of ''Louisville Slugger'' bats.

To prevent bruising of ball players' hands, George H. Rawlings, owner of a St. Louis sporting goods store, invented a glove with felt and rubber padding in fingers, thumb, and palm. The illustration with his patent dated September 8, 1885, demonstrates the specific location for padding, in what appears to be a close-fitting glove.

The improvements to the game continue today, and new patent applications often reference the patented work of Rawlings, Hillerich, or Shibe.

Referred to as the “Edison of Baseball,” Benjamin F. Shibe received many patents related to baseballs. These drawings are part of the patent he received for a cork-centered baseball on June 15, 1909.

These illustrations were part of the patent issued to John A. Hillerich on December 23, 1902, for an improved and hardened surface to the baseball bat.

George H. Rawlings submitted these drawings for a baseball glove in a patent approved on September 8, 1885.

Baseball is for Everyone

A Unifying Game

The game of baseball is woven into the social fabric of the United States just as strongly as the idea of the American dream. Baseball led many to become part of the larger ''team'' of American society. The common language of hits, runs, strikeouts, and stolen bases solidified membership despite a diversity of backgrounds and trying circumstances.

Many Native American children were sent to boarding schools where they were forced to forget their own traditions and expected to assimilate and adopt the ways of white Americans. They played baseball in addition to other sports. Jim Thorpe, a member of the Sac and Fox Nation from Oklahoma, attended the Carlisle Indian School. After a career in professional baseball and football, he coached an All-Indian baseball team. Yet he had a difficult time collecting his pay, and looked to the Superintendent of Indian Affairs of the Five Civilized Tribes to settle the matter.

In 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 sending thousands of Japanese Americans to internment camps. Without the comforts of home, the detainees managed to find some semblance of normalcy. Baseball was part of this. Many camps, including Tule Lake and Manzanar Relocation Centers in California and Granada Relocation Center in Colorado, had baseball teams. Baseball not only served as a way to keep up morale in the camps, but was also a way for the detainees to assert their Americanism. These Americans were still playing the national game—the game they loved—even under the most dire circumstances.

Since the mid-20th century, the rise in popularity of baseball in Latin American countries has ushered in a new group of baseball-playing immigrants to the United States. Puerto Rican-born Roberto Clemente not only played baseball for the Pittsburgh Pirates, but also served in the U.S. Marine Corps Reserves. The Pirates management even requested that their star right fielder be released early to join their team at Spring Training in 1959.

During war and peace, United States military members have brought the ''American game'' to people throughout the world. Baseball truly is for everyone!

In 1939, the Chemawa Indian School’s baseball team wore pinstripes. The school, located in Salem, Oregon, opened in 1880 and continues to educate students today.

Students at the Chilocco Indian School near Newkirk, Oklahoma, played a variety of sports. The varsity baseball team of 1935 had a large roster.

The Albuquerque Indian School, whose baseball team is pictured here in 1911, was established in 1881 to provide off-reservation industrial training to Native Americans in the Southwest. By 1912, the school had eight primary grades and over 300 students.

As a student at the Carlisle Indian School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, Jim Thorpe participated in many sports. This photograph from his school file shows him in track and field.

In 1933 Thorpe agreed to coach an All-Indian baseball team for Susey Walker and Ben Harjo. Unable to collect the money owed him, Thorpe wrote to A.M. Landman, Superintendent of Indian Affairs of the Five Civilized Tribes at the Muskogee Office.

Finally, four years later, Thorpe received payment for his coaching position and signed this contract ending his “lien of claim.”

With the swing of the bat, opening day of the 1944 baseball season at the Tule Lake Segregation Center was underway. More than half of the approximately 17,000 detainees at the Newell, California, segregation center attended the game.

At the Granada Relocation Center in Amache, Colorado, a crowd of over 2,000 watched a game between the Amache team and the Prowers County all-stars. The Amache team proved to be comprised of all-stars too as they won the game 20-9.

Children played baseball at the Manzanar Relocation Center in Manzanar, California, to pass the time. The blocks of barrack housing can be seen in the distance.

Children at the Manzanar Relocation Center huddled up before their baseball game. They were just one of the 80 baseball teams that were formed at the internment camp.

As a new recruit in the Marine Corps, Roberto Clemente Walker reported to the Third Recruit Training Battalion at Parris Island, South Carolina, in September 1958.

Located in his military personnel file, Clemente’s Military and Civilian Occupational Specialties and Education form reflects his main occupation as a baseball player and his duties performed as “played baseball in capacity of right fielder.”

Former Pennsylvania State Senator John M. Walker wrote to U.S. Senator Hugh Scott for assistance in getting Roberto Clemente discharged from the Marine Corps Reserves early to join the Pittsburgh Pirates at Spring Training for the 1959 season.

Clemente was released to attend Spring Training by Brig. Gen. A. Larson.

Roberto Clemente Walker received an Honorable Discharge from the Marine Corps on September 11, 1964.

Villagers gathered at Camp Harriman, in the Orgun Province of Afghanistan, to watch the first-ever Afghani Little League Baseball teams—the Eagles ("Sahein" in Arabic) and The Afghan Club—play, during Operation Enduring Freedom on August 16, 2002.

An Afghani girl played at Camp Harriman, during Operation Enduring Freedom. Mr. Jay Smith, 96th Civil Affairs Battalion, donated the baseball equipment, and this girl was reportedly the first Afghani girl from her area to ever own a ball and glove.

While in Vietnam, members of the 3rd Battalion, 187th Infantry, 101st Airborne Division (Airmobile), joined the children of Ap Uu Thoung hamlet in a game of baseball in 1970.

Even in war-torn Korea, sports were prevalent. Sgt. James W. Black of Chicago, IL, a member of the Fifth Air Force's 49th Fighter Bomber Wing, taught Kim Pak Soon a baseball fundamental in 1951: "get your glove up, and keep the fingers out of the way."

World War I

Even Doughboys were Ballplayers

After several years of neutrality, the United States entered the Great War on April 6, 1917. Over 24 million men registered for the draft, including Major League and Negro League players such as Babe Ruth, Ty Cobb, ''Shoeless'' Joe Jackson, Casey Stengel, and Andrew Rube Foster. Not all of those who registered for the draft served, but many fulfilled their patriotic duty when they got the call.

Twelve players of the Boston Red Sox served in the Naval Reserves, making the prospect of the team's ability to survive during the 1918 season questionable. Team President Harry H. Frazee requested the temporary detachment of his team captain and manager, John J. Barry, assigned to the Boston Navy Yard and second baseman, George E. Lewis, assigned to the Mare Island Navy Yard, in a letter to Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt. Frazee pointed out, ''Although I would like to have the services of several of the other players whom I have lost, I do not feel that in this hour of our country's crisis I ought to ask it, and I am only too happy to know that the Boston club has been able to provide so many good men and stands in the front rank of all the base ball clubs in America as having contributed the largest number of men, twelve in all.'' The 1918 season was cut short due to the war, and although Frazee's request was ultimately denied, the Red Sox won the World Series.

Pitcher Grover Cleveland Alexander was one of the more than 2 million Doughboys who made their way to France to fight in the trenches. He served as a sergeant with Battery F of the 342nd Field Artillery, 89th Division at the Battle of the Argonne Forest. Unlike many of his brothers-in-arms, Alexander made his way back to the United States after the armistice. Battle fatigued and suffering from shell shock, he impressively resumed his baseball career, and was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1938.

George Herman “Babe” Ruth’s World War I Draft Registration Card shows his place of employment as “Fenway Park.”

Tyrus R. “Ty” Cobb registered for the Selective Service in 1917.

“Shoeless” Joe Jackson listed his employer as “Chicago American League BB Club.”

Charles D. “Casey” Stengel was employed by Brooklyn “Base Ball Club.”

Andrew Rube Foster registered as a “Baseball player.”

Red Sox owner Harry M. Frazee wrote to Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt requesting that Red Sox players be taken off active duty at the Boston Navy Yard to play baseball.

Roosevelt supported Frazee’s request, but asked Commandant of the Boston Navy Yard Capt. William R. Rush for his opinion.

Grover Cleveland Alexander’s Enlistment and Assignment Card notes his enlistment on April 29, 1918. He reported for duty at St. Paul, Howard County, Nebraska.

World War II

Baseball Carried Us through the War

Five weeks after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor and the United States entered World War II, Commissioner of Baseball Kenesaw Mountain Landis wrote President Franklin D. Roosevelt asking whether major league baseball should be played. President Roosevelt responded affirmatively with personal hope in what is now known as the ''green light'' letter.

While those on the home front welcomed a reprieve from wartime rationing and production with a day at the ball park, soldiers stationed abroad and at home also enjoyed the game. From locations in the South Pacific to makeshift fields established on the move across Europe, soldiers watched and played baseball wherever they were.

Major league players who enlisted or were drafted into the service carried on military duties and helped entertain troops. Over ninety percent of all major league players were active in the service, helping to comprise talented military teams.

Even with ever changing line-ups, the Great Lakes Naval Training Center's Bluejackets squads were stellar. Led by the former Detroit Tiger player and manager, Gordon ''Mickey'' Cochrane, the 1944 team amassed a .960 winning percentage for the season (48 wins and 2 losses) and a 23-game winning streak. At least seven of those wins were against big league teams.

Soldiers viewed highlight clips before feature films in all military motion picture theaters through the news and entertainment shorts of the Army-Navy Screen Magazine. The film clip ''Dem Bums Warm Up'' took the boys to the 1945 Dodgers' Spring Training with colorful team manager Leo Durocher leading infield practice. When Durocher barked out ''You haven't got a bucket of paint at third base, you got to get the paintbrush out of your hand,'' and a narrator coolly commented on Leo's chatter, the sights and sounds of home were within reach for the troops.

Women's Army Corps members at Camp Ross in Wilmington, California, played softball when they weren't providing crucial logistical support for embarking units. Baseball carried us through the Second World War.

In this letter, Baseball Commissioner Landis asked President Roosevelt whether Major League Baseball should be played in these “not ordinary times.”

This is a typed version of Landis’s letter.

President Roosevelt suggested “that it would be best for the country to keep baseball going.”

Army Air Force Sergeant Joe DiMaggio and Navy Chief Specialist Harold “Pee Wee” Reese autographed baseballs for commanding officers before the Central Pacific Area Championship, known as the Service World Series, in Honolulu.

Found in a report of the U.S. Pacific fleet, this photograph captures Kwajalein men and men of the USS Saint Paul at play on the island approximately 2,400 miles southeast of Honolulu, Hawaii.

The June 30th “Great Lakes Bulletin” from the Great Lakes Naval Training Center highlighted the Bluejackets’ midseason winning streak and their recent dominance over the Chicago Cubs. During the 1944 season, the Bluejackets won at least seven games against Major League teams.

The 1944 Great Lakes Bluejackets included an abundance of Major League talent. Cartoons in the Naval Training Center’s weekly newspaper captured the achievements of these players and funny takes on their Navy boot camp training.

Soldiers enjoyed this video clip of Leo Durocher leading Spring Training for the 1945 Brooklyn Dodgers, available on the National Archives YouTube Channel.

Women’s Army Corps members at Camp Ross in California played softball.

Breaking Down Barriers

Civil Rights On and Off the Field

The history of American baseball also documents the African American struggle for equality in the United States. Since the late 19th century, when Jim Crow policies took hold of the nation and its pastime, there were separate professional baseball leagues for blacks and whites. Many large cities throughout the country had teams in both the Major Leagues and the Negro Leagues. Black players wanted the opportunity to prove that their skills were just as good as those of white players. During World War II, and prior to integration in baseball and the U.S. military, baseball teams at Camp Ross and Camp Anza at the Los Angeles Port of Embarkation were surprisingly integrated.

In 1947, Jackie Robinson crossed the color line in major league baseball when he signed with the Brooklyn Dodgers. That decision would not only integrate baseball, but would help the country work to achieve equal rights for all. Civil Rights leader, Martin Luther King, Jr., once commented to baseball pitcher Don Newcombe, ''Don, you and Jackie will never know how easy you made my job, through what you went through on the baseball field.''

Before becoming famous, Lt. Jack R. Robinson was court-martialed at Camp Hood, Texas, because he refused to move to the back of the bus after being told to do so by a bus driver and disobeying an order from a superior officer. Robinson was acquitted of all charges and received an honorable discharge, but this was not the only experience he would have in fighting discrimination.

After retiring from baseball, Robinson turned much of his attention to civil rights issues. He wrote to several Presidents about the cause, and even attended the March on Washington.

The softball team at Camp Anza was known as the “Zips.” In 1944, there were two African American players on the team.

Camp Anza, a World War II military camp was located in Riverside, California. Sgt. Neely was one of the African American players on the Camp Anza softball team.

During World War II, Camp Ross was used by the Army as a cantonment area for U.S. troops at the Los Angeles Port of Embarkation. In 1945, the baseball team was integrated.

Jackie Robinson in his Brooklyn Dodgers uniform.

Lt. Jack R. Robinson was court-martialed for being disrespectful to and disobeying the command of an officer. He pleaded not guilty to both charges and was acquitted for both on August 23, 1944.

In this telegram to E. Frederick Morrow, Presidential Assistant to President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Jackie Robinson urged the President to veto the 1957 Civil Rights bill because it was—in his opinion—too weak.

Jackie Robinson made a personal plea to President Dwight D. Eisenhower to show support and take action for black Americans.

Robinson commended President John F. Kennedy on a “fine start” since his election, but pointed out his leisurely attitude towards civil rights.

In this telegram to President Kennedy, Robinson implored him to protect Martin Luther King, Jr., and others in the struggle for civil rights.

Jackie Robinson and his son attended the March on Washington on August 28, 1963.

Robinson strongly encouraged President Lyndon B. Johnson to continue on his path of promoting civil rights despite protests against the Vietnam War and riots in Tennessee and Ohio.

In his cautionary letter to Ronald L. Elliott, Deputy Special Assistant to President Richard Nixon, Robinson warned of conflict between the races if no definitive action were taken.

Diamonds and Dollars

Conflicts over Contracts

''After twelve years in the Major League, I do not feel that I am a piece of property to be bought and sold irrespective of my wishes.''

Curt Flood penned those words in a letter to Baseball Commissioner Bowie Kuhn in October 1969 after being traded from the St. Louis Cardinals to the Philadelphia Phillies. Nearly 56 years earlier, Joseph Tinker joined the upstart Federal League, a third league attempting to enter organized baseball, after he was traded to the Brooklyn Dodgers despite his expressed wishes to play in the Midwest.

As highlighted in both of these examples, baseball owners were able to exert great control over players and their careers. They did so primarily through the contract reserve clause. Dating back to the 1880s, the reserve clause guaranteed the team that first signed a player ''the rights'' to that player until he was traded or retired. Initially created to stabilize and professionalize the game, the reserve clause had kept players' salaries in check and ensured owners a sense of financial stability in the game. Several players, including Flood, filed lawsuits challenging the reserve clause on antitrust grounds and looked to the courts for justice without success.

Eventually in 1975, the reserve clause was struck down and free agency was established. The economic structure of the game changed, and players' salaries skyrocketed in the ensuing years. By 1994, the owners claimed they were experiencing severe financial distress and demanded a salary cap during negotiations for a new collective bargaining agreement. Players would not accept this, and the preceding years of mistrust led to an early end to the season when owners locked out players on August 12, 1994. President Clinton tried to save the 1995 season with the encouragement of consistent and fruitful negotiation to work out differences. In the end, current Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor, who served as a federal judge in New York City at that time, issued an injunction against the baseball team owners for alleged violations of the National Labor Relations Act. That ended the 232-day strike, but it would take more to cleanse and refurbish baseball's image for the fans.

Curt Flood sent this letter, later used as an exhibit in his court case, to Commissioner of Baseball Kuhn requesting that he be allowed to entertain offers from other clubs.

After receiving this response, Flood continued with his plans and initiated a lawsuit against Major League Baseball.

Flood received this notice that he was traded to the Phillies after playing with the St. Louis Cardinals for 11 years.

The U.S. District Court judge ruled against Flood and agreed with existing legal precedent in his opinion, while still recognizing the contentious nature of the reserve clause.

In his court deposition, Joe Tinker shared his frustration with the multiple trades, contract clauses, and the overall lack of opportunity to control his baseball career.

With this statement, President Clinton informed the public that he asked former Secretary of Labor Bill Usery to bring both sides back to the negotiating table and report progress by February 6.

On February 7, President Clinton held a press conference, shown in a video available on the Clinton Presidential Library's YouTube Channel, to share the disappointing news that, with Spring Training nine days away, owners and players had not worked out their differences.

A transcript of the press conference reads:

THE WHITE HOUSE

Office of the Press Secretary

For Immediate Release February 7, 1995

REMARKS BY THE PRESIDENT AFTER MEETING WITH BASEBALL REPRESENTATIVES

The Briefing Room

10:51 P.M. EST

THE PRESIDENT: Good evening. Sorry to keep you here so long tonight. I had hoped that tonight I'd be coming out to tell you that baseball was coming back in 1995; and for a good while this evening, I thought that that might well be the case. Unfortunately, the parties have not reached agreement.

The American people are the real losers -- the major league cities; the spring training communities; the families of thousands of Americans who won't have work unless there's a baseball season; and of course, the millions of fans who have waited now for six long months for the owners and the players to give us back our national pastime.

I have done all I could to change this situation. At my request, Bill Usery, the highly respected former Secretary of Labor, has been working very hard in mediating this dispute. He has certainly gone the extra mile, and we all owe him our thanks. But the players and owners still remain apart on their differences. Clearly they are not capable of settling this strike without an umpire. So I have now concluded, since I have no legal authority in this situation, as all of you know and have known for some time, that I should send to the Congress legislation seeking binding arbitration of the baseball dispute.

This is not a request for a congressionally imposed solution. It is a request for the only process we have left to us to find a solution through neutral parties. And the only way to do this appears to be for Congress to step up to the plate and pass the legislation. Unless they do, we may not have baseball in 1995.

I know that the people in Congress say they have other pressing business, and they certainly do have other pressing business. I regret very much having to send this legislation there, but spring training is just nine days away, and I think many Americans consider this pressing. At least when the bill goes to the Congress, the American people can make themselves heard one way or the other on the legislation, and Congress can consider it.

Clearly, the best solution is still one that is voluntary. I still call again on both sides to work with Mr. Usery to narrow their differences. Hopefully, they can reach agreement. If not, then Mr. Usery's recommendations as to where the parties are at the time can be made available to the arbitrators.

I urge the parties to embrace this course themselves. And, as I said, I had hoped for a while tonight that they would. We have done the best we can. The American people have been frustrated by the strike. I think all the parties who were here tonight have now been frustrated by the strike.

There is something the American people can do. They can tell their senator or representative whether they feel this is a proper case for binding arbitration. Last fall, for the first time in 90 years, there was no World Series. If something goes on for that long without interruption, seeing our nations through wars and dramatic social changes, it becomes more than a game, more than simply a way to pass time. It becomes part of who we are. And we've all got to work to preserve that part.

So again I say, I call on the players and the owners to go back, to keep talking, to work through this. There is still time. I will send the legislation to Congress with the full expectation that Congress will consider it in light of what they believe their constituents want, which their constituents will have the opportunity to tell them.

Q Mr. President, you've met now with the players and the owners. In your opinion, who is more to blame for this impasse? And why won't they simply accept voluntarily binding arbitration?

THE PRESIDENT: Well, I think both sides have their share of blame, and I think it would be wrong for me to characterize it at this time. I don't think that would help to settle the suit. You should ask them why they won't accept what they won't accept. They will both have different explanations for that, and I will leave it for them to put it out there. I did urge that course strongly.

Q Mr. President, what gave rise to the optimism you felt during the course of the evening that a settlement might be possible?

THE PRESIDENT: Well, I don't want to do anything to weaken either side's position or characterize it in a way they might later think is unfair. Let me just say, I thought that we were about to get agreement on a process which would permit the next season to be played, that would permit spring training to occur, and that would lead to the resolution of these issues. I thought that we had worked our way through -- there were some new ideas presented tonight as we discussed, as we talked.

That's why, you know, when they didn't reach agreement, when they came over here at 4:30 p.m., I thought I was going to come out and make the statement I just made to you. But then, I said we ought to try one more time. And the Vice President sat with Mr. Usery and both sides, and then about 7:00 p.m. I began to meet with them. Now, we've worked hard for more than three hours now, and we could not agree on a process that both sides thought was fair to their interest which would immediately permit me to announce that baseball would be played this season. But we did have some new ideas offered that had not been on the table before that I thought would lead to that. Unfortunately, it did not, at least it has not tonight.

Q Mr. President when will you send up your legislation? And are you asking Congress to make this their top priority, putting aside their other business until they complete action on this?

THE PRESIDENT: I'm going to send it up tomorrow, and I would like to have it considered expeditiously, yes. I haven't looked at the congressional calendar; I don't even know what their options are for that. But I think it should be considered expeditiously. I think, obviously it can't be done in a day or two, anyway, so the Congress will have time to hear from the American people, pro and con. This is an unusual request. I realize that. There is no baseball commissioner, we'd lost the World Series, millions upon millions of dollars in lost income is at stake, and a lot more as well. So I hope they will consider it expeditiously. I think that's the only way it could lead to a season in 95.

Q How do you compare this, Mr. President, to say President Kennedy, acting on steel prices and former uses of the office and the Oval Office for labor dispute?

THE PRESIDENT: Well, I think it's a little different in the sense that the steel price issue could have sent inflation through the economy and the steel price issue could have sent inflation through the economy and shut the economy down. I've tried to explain that if it weren't for the unusual nature of this case, I would not be intervening in the baseball case because the economy of the country won't go down as a result of it. The inflation rate of the country won't go up as a result of something that could or couldn't happen.

This is far more in the nature of a unique set of circumstances where there isn't a commissioner and there should have been to resolve this, and where there is immediate substantial threat to a large number of communities affected by spring training and the communities that have baseball teams, and where I think the country would be well served by resolving this. So it is different in that sense.

I was looking at the history of presidential action in these areas, going back to the first one, which I believe was under President Theodore Roosevelt, which, unfortunately, was also unsuccessful. Just three years before he settled the Russo-Japanese War and won the Nobel Peace Prize he found difficulty in settling a labor dispute here in the United States.

I still think this can be settled. The parties are just going to have to decide whether they want to have a baseball season in '95 and what the long-term damage to baseball will be and, therefore, the economics of both sides if it doesn't happen.

Q Mr. President, if the season begins with replacement players, would you throw out the first ball?

THE PRESIDENT: I am encouraging these parties to go back and work out their differences. Until I am convinced that they have exhausted all opportunities to do that, the less I say about all other issues, the better we're going to be. I do not want to be yet another force undermining the possibility of an agreement. I want to be a force to create an increased likelihood of an agreement, and that's what I've done so far. I'm sorry I don't have a success to report tonight, I'm not sorry I tried, and we'll keep working at it.

THE PRESS: Thank you.

END11:00 P.M. EST

For the Love of the Game

Presidents and First Ladies as Fans

Fan. It is short for aficionado, which means ardent devotee or enthusiast. If you have ever been to a baseball game you can see how easy it is to become a fan of the game and the experience. Entering a ballpark, whether it is for Little League, the minor leagues, or the colossal stadiums of the Majors, creates a feeling of excitement. The smell of popcorn, singing ''Take Me Out to the Ballgame,'' watching the acrobatic skill of a shortstop turn a double play, or witnessing a homerun are all part of the experience that keeps fans returning year after year. Opening Day provides hope for fans that maybe their team will win the pennant and play into October.

The now-archived 2007 White House website included a ''Presidents and Baseball'' page with an image of President Taft, captioned ''President William Howard Taft was the first President to throw out the first ball of the baseball season on April 14, 1910. He threw a pitch to the Washington Senators' Opening Day pitcher, Walter Johnson. The next day, Taft's image dominated the sports pages.''

Most people are familiar with U.S. Presidents throwing out the ceremonial first pitch, but some of our Presidents have been and are true fans of the game. George H.W. Bush was captain and first baseman of the baseball team at Yale, and he carried his love of the game to the Oval Office. He kept his first baseman's mitt from his Yale days in his desk drawer while President.

William Jefferson Clinton was President during the 1994 baseball strike, one of the lowest points in baseball history, but he did his best to help bring about a resolution between players and owners. In a heartfelt address on the eve of the 1995 World Series, Clinton spoke of his love for the game and how important it is to America. Listeners connected with this fan of the game—who just so happened to be the President of the United States.

First Ladies have also enjoyed the national game. Bess Truman was seen casting her vote, not for the Presidential election, but for the All-Star Game of 1953. Barbara Bush even threw out the first pitch at a Texas Rangers baseball game donning heels and pearls! Presidents and Baseball.

This screen grab from the 2007 White House website of President George W. Bush shows President Taft throwing the first pitch. The site was “frozen in time” at noon on January 20, 2009, as President Barack Obama took the oath of office. It is archived on servers with National Archives-affiliated archives at the University of North Texas.

In front of an enthusiastic crowd, President Franklin D. Roosevelt threw out the first pitch at a game between the Washington Senators and the Boston Red Sox at Griffith Stadium in Washington, D.C., on April 24, 1934.

President John F. Kennedy threw out the first pitch on Opening Day in 1962 at a game between the Washington Senators and the Detroit Tigers at D.C. Stadium on April 9.

A great fan and former radio announcer for the Chicago Cubs, President Ronald Reagan threw out the first pitch at a Cubs vs. Pirates game at Chicago’s Wrigley Field on September 30, 1988.

In 1948, Babe Ruth donated the manuscript of his autobiography to Yale University. George H.W. Bush, the captain of the Yale baseball team, received it.

On Opening Day of the 1947 baseball season, President Harry S. Truman attended the game between the Washington Senators and the New York Yankees at Griffith Stadium in Washington, DC.  Before the game Truman shook hands with the managers of both teams, Ossie Bluege of the Senators and Bucky Harris of the Yankees.

Homerun King Hank Aaron received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor of the United States, from President George W. Bush in June 2002.

First Lady Bess Truman and her daughter, Margaret, cast their ballots for the 1953 All-Star Game at Griffith Stadium in Washington, D.C.

Atop the mound in Arlington Stadium, First Lady Barbara Bush threw out the ceremonial first pitch at a Texas Rangers vs. Boston Red Sox game in Arlington, Texas, on May 5, 1989.

A radio address delivered by President Bill Clinton on October 21, 1995, available online from the Clinton Presidential Library, revealed a personal side of the President as a thankful fan for the return of baseball.

A transcript of the address reads:

THE WHITE HOUSE

Office of the Press Secretary

(Des Moines, Iowa)

For Immediate Release

October 21, 1995

RADIO ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT TO THE NATION

Savery Hotel

Des Moines, Iowa

THE PRESIDENT: Good morning. I want to talk to you today about American renewal. Not economic renewal, though our economy is certainly on the move. Not the renewal of peace, though the United States is leading hopeful efforts towards peace from the Middle East to Northern Ireland to Bosnia. Not even the renewal of the American spirit, though there is a tide of optimism rising over our country as we harness technology and other changes to increase opportunities for all our people and strengthen our families and communities. No, the American renewal I want to talk to you about today is the renewal of our National Pastime, the renewal of baseball.

A year ago, for the first time in 90 years, we found ourselves without a World Series. And, boy, did we miss it. We missed those nail-biting extra-inning nights. We missed a game that for so many of us is so much more than a game. Well, tonight, with the start of the World Series, baseball is back. And we couldn't be happier.

Baseball is a part of our common heritage. Its simple virtues -- teamwork, playing by the rules, dedication and optimism -- demonstrate basic American values. We can look out at the green grass of the outfield, or feel the worn leather of an old glove, or watch a Latino shortstop scoop the ball to a black second-baseman, who then throws it to a white first-baseman in a perfect double play, and say, yes, this sure is America. This is who we are.

At its best, baseball is more than just a field of dreams. Every season brings our children and many adults face to face with heroes to look up to and goals to work toward. This year was no different. Greg Maddux's 1.63 ERA; Albert Belle's 50 homeruns and 50 doubles; and of course, most important, Cal Ripken's 2,131st consecutive game. All these inspire countless young people to play the game, and those of us who are older to make the most of the talents God has given us, no matter what kind of work we do.

While baseball provides role models, it also helps us recognize these American values in everyday life. Just before Cal Ripken broke Lou Gehrig's record I saw a story about other dedicated workers, featuring a bus driver who hadn't missed a day's work in 18 years. This man said he didn't see anything unusual about himself; after all, his father had told him we're all supposed to work hard and show up every day. But had it not been for Cal Ripken, we would never have had the opportunity to meet this wonderful man or to appreciate the hard work that he and millions and millions of other Americans do every day just by showing up for work like Cal Ripken did.

Baseball does something more. It helps to hold us together; it helps us to come together. I've been fortunate enough to see a lot of our great country. Just about everywhere I've ever been I've come across a baseball diamond. No matter where you go in America, sooner or later there will be a patch of green, a path of dirt, and a home plate.

When I was growing up in Arkansas, baseball connected me to the rest of America. My team was the St. Louis Cardinals, the closest team to my home state. They were the ones we got on the radio. And I spent a lot of hot summer nights listening to the heroics of Stan Musial come over my transistor, like thousands of other young kids all over America.

Baseball also teaches us tolerance. It teaches us to play as hard as we can and still be friends when the game's over; to respect our differences, and to be able to lose with dignity as well as win with joy -- but real tolerance for differences. I mean, after all, my wife was raised in Chicago as a Cubs fan, and she married me even though I'd grown up rooting for the Cardinals. And everybody in the Midwest knows that when Cubs fans and Cardinal fans can sit down together, that's real tolerance.

If you watch one of the 178,000 Little League teams in this country, you also will see real community in America. Two and a half million of our children get together to play this sport, boys and girls. And that's not counting everyone who supports the teams and shows up for the games and practices and bake sales. Communities large and small grow up around baseball -- kids playing a pick-up game until it's too dark to see; folks getting together for softball after work; families walking together to see a home game at their local ball park.

This has been a wonderful baseball season. When it's over, and the owners and players sit down to resolve their labor dispute, I hope they'll remember the spirit of the season, the spirit we all feel right now, and use it to come together to build a lasting agreement. America doesn't need to lose baseball in a squabble. America needs to keep baseball.

During World War II, there was a debate about whether baseball should continue while so many of our young Americans were fighting for freedom around the world. President Roosevelt knew we should play ball. He wrote, "It would be best for the country to keep baseball going. Everybody will work longer hours and harder than ever before. And that means they ought to have a chance for taking their minds off their work even more than before."

Well, we still need baseball. We know we have many important challenges facing us as a nation, as we prepare for the 21st century. We know that we're having important debates in Washington and real differences. But tonight, I just hope Americans will be able to take their minds off all that and their own work for a moment. I hope they'll be able to wonder instead at the arc of a homerun, a catch at the wall, the snap of the ball in the back of a mitt. Soon these sights and sounds will become a new part of our shared national memory of baseball.

Tonight, fans of the Cleveland Indians and the Atlanta Braves will watch with special interest. But all of us Americans have reason to smile, for baseball is back.

Thanks for listening, and play ball.

END

7th-Inning Stretch

Cardboard Collections

Baseball cards originated as advertisements for tobacco companies in the 1880s, and were included with the purchase of packs of cigarettes, chewing tobacco, and cigars.

Soon after World War I, tobacco companies stopped baseball card production, and candy companies started. They packed baseball cards with bubble gum and caramel candy, which attracted kids.

By 1989 cards contained holograms to prevent counterfeiting, and the candy disappeared, while a multi-million dollar industry remained.

Through all these changes, collecting baseball cards still allows youngsters and the ''kid in all of us'' to indulge in a love for the game and the players who make it happen.

These baseball cards were produced by the American Tobacco Company between 1909 and 1911. This one is for Bob Bescher of the Cincinnati Reds, National League.

These cards are classified as “white borders.” This one is for Frank Chance of the Chicago Cubs, National League.

The actual size of each card is 2.625 inches by 1.4375 inches. This one is for Wid Conroy of the Washington Senators, American League.

This one is for Russ Ford of the New York Yankees, American League.

This one is for John McGraw of the New York Giants, National League.

This one is for Orval Overall of the Chicago Cubs, National League.

Advertisements for cigarette brands, such as Old Mill, appeared on the back of these cards.

Russian children display baseball cards, a gift from visiting American sailors, as they pose on September 21, 1992, in Revolution Square, Vladivostok.

Equal Access

The Fight to Open the Locker Room Door and Play on the Diamond

Carolyn King, a twelve-year-old girl, could play baseball better than neighborhood boys. After receiving permission from the Ypsilanti Michigan American League Little League president to try out, Carolyn beat 15 boys and a couple 0f girls for a spot on the Orioles team in 1973. The national Little League Baseball organization prohibited girls at that time, and issued a warning that unless Carolyn stopped playing, the Ypsilanti American League would lose its charter. But Carolyn wanted to play baseball.

Melissa Ludtke was an avid baseball fan and rising reporter at Sports Illustrated. She was assigned the 1977 baseball playoffs in New York and Philadelphia and the ensuing World Series. During the first two American League playoff games in New York, the Yankees refused to provide her the same access to the locker room as her male colleagues. Before the World Series started, Dodger players voted to let Ludtke into the clubhouse after games in Los Angeles. But Baseball Commissioner Bowie Kuhn stepped in and reversed this decision. Ludtke missed capturing the ballplayers' locker-room stories and interviews.

Both women with supporters brought their desire for equal opportunity to Federal court invoking violation of the 14th Amendment.

And while Ludtke's case opened baseball locker-room doors, joining professional basketball and hockey, with an equal access policy for accredited reporters, Ludtke herself left sports journalism and began reporting on social issues.

Judge Ralph Freeman dismissed King's case for lack of jurisdiction, a decision upheld by the Appellate Court. Between 1972 and 1974, 22 cases, including King's, were filed against Little League Baseball, Inc. and its boys-only policy. Yet the national Little League organization did not petition Congress to amend its Federal charter and eliminate the boys-only rule until it lost the New Jersey State case National Organization for Women vs. Little League Baseball, Inc. in spring 1974. On December 26, 1974, President Ford signed into law a bill that formally opened Little League Baseball to girls. By this time, King was 13 and too old, yet thousands of other girls would play.

In this letter, an exhibit in the King case, the president of the Ypsilanti league asked the executive vice president of Little League Baseball: “does it mean that our charter is revoked?”

During the King case, the president of Little League Baseball testified in court about the need to modify the chest protector if girls were allowed to play, an argument made repeatedly by Little League.

In his court deposition, an orthopedic surgeon stated that there was little difference developmentally between girls and boys between the ages of 10 to 12 in regards to Little League Baseball.

Melissa Ludtke and her employer Time, Inc. (owner of Sports Illustrated) alleged in this complaint that Major League Baseball discriminated against female reporters, despite their increasing number, and the policies of professional hockey and basketball.

The photograph and illustration, used as exhibits during the case, show the New York Yankees locker room that Ludtke wished to enter.

The court ordered the New York Yankees to allow Ludtke and all female accredited sports reporters access to the clubhouse locker rooms.

Located in President Ford’s legislation case files is a recommendation to approve the bill H.R. 8864 and amend the Federal charter of Little League Baseball.

Saving the Integrity of the Game

The Steroid Era

The names Babe Ruth and Hank Aaron evoke a memory of balls flying into the stands and beyond. The homerun record is one of the most coveted records in all of sports. So much so, that many baseball traditionalists hated seeing Hammerin' Hank surpass ''The Babe.'' After the 1994 strike, baseball struggled to regain its place in the hearts of the fans. Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa lured baseball enthusiasts back to the game with their exciting homerun race during the summer of 1998.

But soon a dark cloud loomed over the game. Although the possession or selling of anabolic steroids without a prescription was made illegal by Federal law in 1991, rumors began to spread of major league players using steroids. Was the increase in offensive output related to the use of performance-enhancing drugs? Studies and reports showed an increase in the use of these drugs among college and high school students. Congress was disturbed by this trend and Major League Baseball's lackadaisical attitude in addressing the issue.

On March 17, 2005, Congress held the ''Restoring Faith in America's Pastime: Evaluating Major League Baseball's Efforts to Eradicate Steroid Use'' hearing and subpoenaed several stars to testify. During the hearing, Tom Davis, Chairman of the Committee on Government Reform, stated, ''Our specific purpose today is to consider Major League Baseball's recently negotiated drug policy, how the testing policy will be implemented, how it will effectively address the use of prohibitive drugs by players and most importantly, the larger societal and public health ramifications of steroid use.'' Hall of Fame pitcher and U.S. Senator from Kentucky Jim Bunning spoke with conviction at the hearing.

Only time will tell of the impact of steroids on baseball, but the highest legislative body in the land thought the issue and integrity of the game were important enough to consider in 2005.

The Committee on Government Reform opened the transcript of the March 17, 2005, steroid use hearing to the public. Related records, however, remain closed. Although the House and Senate regularly transfer records to the National Archives and Records Administration, these records are closed to researchers for designated periods of time: 30 years for most House records, with investigative records and records involving personal privacy closed for 50 years.

Hall of Fame pitcher and U.S. Senator from Kentucky Jim Bunning testified at the “Restoring Faith in America’s Pastime: Evaluating Major League Baseball’s Efforts to Eradicate Steroid Use” hearing.

Extra Innings

Baseball evokes a sense of nostalgic euphoria for fans of the game. Many remember their first visit to a major league ballpark with the pristine emerald field, the smell of popcorn and peanuts wafting through the air, and the sound of the crack of the bat. But, as seen in the documents in this book, baseball is more than these memories. For our nation, this pastime is truly a mirror of American society.

The records highlighted in this book come from numerous repositories in the National Archives system. Locations in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, College Park, Denver, Fort Worth, Kansas City, New York, Riverside, San Francisco, Seattle, and St. Louis, as well as the Center for Legislative Archives, the Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald R. Ford, Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, William Jefferson Clinton, and George W. Bush Presidential Libraries contributed documents. The baseball stories included in this book only scratch the surface of what can be found in the stacks of the National Archives. To learn more about the records at the National Archives please visit www.archives.gov.

Citations

Cover Image:

Photograph of Camp Ross Pitcher, 08/07/1945; 569.6 Publicity IX April–Aug. 1945, Central Subject Files, 1941–1946; Records of the Office of the Chief of Transportation, Record Group 336; National Archives at Riverside.

Intro Video:

Made Game [Making Sports Equipment], ca. 1919; Motion Picture Films Relating to the Ford Motor Company, the Henry Ford Family, Noted Personalities, Industry, and Numerous Americana and Other Subjects, compiled ca. 1903–ca. 1954; Collection FC: Ford Motor Company Collection, ca. 1903–ca. 1954; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier: 91349)

Chapter 1—Tools of the Trade:

Patent Drawing for Benjamin F. Shibe's Cork-Centered Baseball, 06/15/1909 [Architectural and Engineering Drawings]; Patented Case Files, compiled 1836–1970; Records of the Patent and Trademark Office, Record Group 241; National Archives at College Park.

Patent Drawing for John A. Hillerich's Baseball Bat, 12/23/1902 [Architectural and Engineering Drawings]; Patented Case Files, compiled 1836–1970; Records of the Patent and Trademark Office, Record Group 241; National Archives at College Park.

Patent Drawing for George H. Rawlings' Baseball Glove, 09/08/1885 [Architectural and Engineering Drawings]; Patented Case Files, compiled 1836–1970; Records of the Patent and Trademark Office, Record Group 241; National Archives at College Park.

Chapter 2—Baseball is for Everyone:

Chemawa Indian School Baseball Team, 1939; Photographs, compiled ca. 1907–1976, Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75; National Archives at Seattle. (National Archives Identifier 5585776)

Albuquerque Indian School Baseball Team, 1911; General Correspondence File of the Albuquerque Indian School, compiled 1881–1936; Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75; National Archives at Denver. (National Archives Identifier 292884)

Chilocco Varsity Baseball Team, 1935; Annual Reports, 1918–1952 (E. 75-CH8); Records of the Chilocco School, Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75; National Archives at Fort Worth. (National Archives Identifier: 7077460)

Photograph of Jim Thorpe, ca. 1910; Jim Thorpe Student File, 1904–1915, Student Records of the Carlisle Indian School, compiled 1879–1918, Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75; National Archives at Washington, DC. (National Archives Identifier: 595347)

Letter from Jim Thorpe to A.M. Landman, Superintendent of the Muskogee Office, 08/10/1935; Individual Indian Money (IIM) Case Files, 1908–1949 (E. 552); Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75; National Archives at Fort Worth. (National Archives Identifier 7150736)

Contract signed by Jim Thorpe, 12/23/1937; Individual Indian Money (IIM) Case Files, 1908–1949 (E. 552); Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75; National Archives at Fort Worth. (National Archives Identifier 7150740)

Segregation Center, Newell, California. The 1944 league baseball season got underway, 04/19/1944; Central Photographic File of the War Relocation Authority, compiled 1942–1945, Records of the War Relocation Authority, Record Group 210; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier: 539548)

Granada Relocation Center, Amache, Colorado. Part of the crowd of 2,000 people, evacuees . . ., 09/12/1943; Central Photographic File of the War Relocation Authority, compiled 1942–1945, Records of the War Relocation Authority, Record Group 210; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier: 537324)

Manzanar Relocation Center, Manzanar, California. One of the 80 baseball teams which have been form . . ., 07/03/1942; Central Photographic File of the War Relocation Authority, compiled 1942–1945, Records of the War Relocation Authority, Record Group 210; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier: 538060)

Manzanar Relocation Center, Manzanar, California. Baseball players in a huddle. This game is very . . ., 07/02/1942; Central Photographic File of the War Relocation Authority, compiled 1942–1945, Records of the War Relocation Authority, Record Group 210; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier: 538066)

Service Record for Roberto Clemente Walker, 09/30/1958; Official Military Personnel Files, compiled 1912–1998; Records of the Army Staff, Record Group 319; National Archives at St. Louis.

Military and Civilian Occupational Specialties and Education form for Roberto Clemente Walker, 09/30/1958; Official Military Personnel Files, compiled 1912–1998; Records of the Army Staff, Record Group 319; National Archives at St. Louis.

Letter from Brigadier General A. Larson to United States Senator Hugh Scott granting the early release of Roberto Clemente Walker for the 1959 baseball season, 03/03/1959; Official Military Personnel Files, compiled 1912–1998; Records of the Army Staff, Record Group 319; National Archives at St. Louis.

Roberto Clemente Walker's Honorable Discharge from the United States Marine Corps, 09/11/1964; Official Military Personnel Files, compiled 1912–1998; Records of the Army Staff, Record Group 319; National Archives at St. Louis.

Letter from former State Senator John M. Walker to United States Senator Hugh Scott requesting assistance in getting an early release for Roberto Clemente Walker for the 1959 baseball season, 02/09/1959; Official Military Personnel Files, compiled 1912–1998; Records of the Army Staff, Record Group 319; National Archives at St. Louis.

A large crowd of local Afghani villagers gathered at Camp Harriman, located in the Orgun Province of Afghanistan, to watch the first ever Afghani Little League Baseball Teams, consisting of two teams the Eagles ("Sahein" in Arabic) and The Afghan Club, play a game of baseball, during Operation ENDURING FREEDOM, 08/16/2002; Combined Military Service Digital Photographic Files, compiled 1982–2007; Records of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, Record Group 330; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier 6641194)

An Afghani girl plays with her baseball and glove at Camp Harriman, located in the Orgun Province of Afghanistan, during Operation ENDURING FREEDOM. Mr. Jay Smith, 96th Civil Affairs Battalion, donated the baseball equipment and this girl is reportedly the first Afghani girl, from her area, to ever own a ball and glove, 08/16/2002; Combined Military Service Digital Photographic Files, compiled 1982–2007; Records of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, Record Group 330; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier 6641193)

Vietnam....Members of the 3rd Battalion, 187th Infantry, 101st Airborne Division (Airmobile), join the children of Ap Uu Thoung hamlet in a game of baseball. The troopers are members of a Battalion Action Team involved in pacification operations in Phong Dieu District, north of Hue., 01/15/1970; Signal Corps Photographs of American Military Activity, compiled 1754–1954; Records of the Office of the Chief Signal Officer, Record Group 111; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier 531465)

A Korean youth, Kim Pak Soon, is taught one of the fundamental lessons of baseball--"get your glove up, and keep the fingers out of the way." His instructor is S/Sgt. James W. Black, Chicago, Ill., member of the Fifth Air Force's 49th Fighter Bomber Wing. As warm weather approaches, members of the 49th plan to expand the sports program, even in war-torn Korea., ca. 03/1951; Black and White Photographs of U.S. Air Force and Predecessors' Activities, Facilities, and Personnel, Domestic and Foreign, compiled 1930–1975; Records of U.S. Air Force Commands, Activities, and Organizations, Record Group 342; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier 542323)

Chapter 3—World War I:

World War I Draft Registration Card for George Herman ''Babe'' Ruth, 06/05/1917; Draft Registration Cards, compiled 1917–1918, Records of the Selective Service System (World War I), Record Group 163; National Archives at Atlanta. (National Archives Identifier: 641780)

World War I Draft Registration Card for Tyrus R. ''Ty'' Cobb, 05/23/1917; Draft Registration Cards, compiled 1917–1918, Records of the Selective Service System (World War I), Record Group 163; National Archives at Atlanta. (National Archives Identifier: 641757)

World War I Draft Registration Card for Joe ''Shoeless Joe'' Jackson, n.d.; Draft Registration Cards, compiled 1917–1918, Records of the Selective Service System (World War I), Record Group 163; National Archives at Atlanta.

World War I Draft Registration Card for Charles ''Casey'' Stengel, 05/26/1917; Draft Registration Cards, compiled 1917–1918, Records of the Selective Service System (World War I), Record Group 163; National Archives at Atlanta.

World War I Draft Registration Card for Andrew Rube Foster, 09/12/1918; Draft Registration Cards, compiled 1917–1918, Records of the Selective Service System (World War I), Record Group 163; National Archives at Atlanta. (National Archives Identifier: 641802)

Correspondence Concerning Red Sox Players at the Boston Navy Yard, 12/1917–02/1918; Personnel Officer General 19-41, Jan.–April 1918, 12/1917–04/1918; General Correspondence, compiled 1909–1969, Records of Naval Districts and Shore Establishments, Record Group 181; National Archives at Boston. (National Archives Identifier 5751792)

Enlistment and Assignment Card for Grover Cleveland Alexander, 05/02/1918; Official Military Personnel Files, compiled 1912–1998. Records of the Army Staff, Record Group 319; National Archives at St. Louis.

Service Record for Grover Cleveland Alexander, c. 1917–1919; Official Military Personnel Files, compiled 1912–1998. Records of the Army Staff, Record Group 319; National Archives at St. Louis.

Chapter 4—World War II:

Letter from Kenesaw Landis to President Franklin D. Roosevelt Regarding Baseball , 01/15/1942; PPF 227: Baseball; President's Personal Files, compiled 1933–1945; Papers as President, President's Personal File, 1933–1945; Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library. (National Archives Identifier: 6997538)

Letter from President Franklin D. Roosevelt to Kenesaw Landis Regarding Baseball, 01/15/1942; PPF 227: Baseball; President's Personal Files, compiled 1933–1945; Papers as President, President's Personal File, 1933–1945; Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library. (National Archives Identifier: 6997537)

Photograph of Army Air Force Sergeant Joe DiMaggio and Navy Chief Specialist Harold ''Pee Wee'' Reese; Department of the Navy; National Archives at College Park.

Photograph of ''Kwajalein natives vs USS St. Paul"; Report of the Inspection of the Caroline Islands by the U.S. Pacific Fleet, compiled 08/1946–10/1946; Federal Loan Agency. Reconstruction Finance Corporation. U.S. Commercial Company. (10/20/1945–1947); Records of the Office of Territories, Record Group 126; National Archives at San Francisco.

Great Lakes Bulletin, weekly newspaper of the U.S. Naval Training Center, Great Lakes, 06/30/1944, page 3; Central Subject Files, compiled 1947–1953, documenting the period 1929–1953; Department of Defense. Department of the Navy. Great Lakes Naval Training Station, Lake Bluff, Illinois. Office of the Commandant. (09/19/1947–); Records of the Naval Districts and Shore Establishments, Record Group 181; National Archives at Chicago.

Clyde McCullough Cartoon, Great Lakes Bulletin, weekly newspaper of the U.S. Naval Training Center, Great Lakes, 05/26/1944, page 7; Central Subject Files, compiled 1947–1953, documenting the period 1929–1953; Department of Defense. Department of the Navy. Great Lakes Naval Training Station, Lake Bluff, Illinois. Office of the Commandant. (09/19/1947–); Records of the Naval Districts and Shore Establishments, Record Group 181; National Archives at Chicago.

Merrill Ma Cartoon, Great Lakes Bulletin, weekly newspaper of the U.S. Naval Training Center, Great Lakes, 06/16/1944, page 7; Central Subject Files, compiled 1947–1953, documenting the period 1929–1953; Department of Defense. Department of the Navy. Great Lakes Naval Training Station, Lake Bluff, Illinois. Office of the Commandant. (09/19/1947–); Records of the Naval Districts and Shore Establishments, Record Group 181; National Archives at Chicago.

Schoolboy Rowe Cartoon, Great Lakes Bulletin, weekly newspaper of the U.S. Naval Training Center, Great Lakes, 05/05/1944, page 7; Central Subject Files, compiled 1947–1953, documenting the period 1929–1953; Department of Defense. Department of the Navy. Great Lakes Naval Training Station, Lake Bluff, Illinois. Office of the Commandant. (09/19/1947–); Records of the Naval Districts and Shore Establishments, Record Group 181; National Archives at Chicago.

Army-Navy Screen Magazine, Number 2: Navy Edition, 1945; Navy Motion Picture Film Productions, compiled ca. 1939–ca. 1947; Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. Naval Observatory. (1942–09/18/1947); General Records of the Department of the Navy, Record Group 80; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier: 36165)

WAC Softball Team at Camp Ross, Wilmington, CA; 569.6 Publicity III 07–08/1944 [2/2];Central Subject Files, compiled 1941–1946; War Department. Office of the Chief of Transportation. Los Angeles Port of Embarkation. (06/11/1946–09/18/1947); Records of the Office of the Chief of Transportation, Record Group 336; National Archives at Riverside.

WAC and WAVES Softball Team; 569.6 Publicity IV 08–09/1944[1/3]; Central Subject Files, compiled 1941–1946; War Department. Office of the Chief of Transportation. Los Angeles Port of Embarkation. (06/11/1946–09/18/1947); Records of the Office of the Chief of Transportation, Record Group 336; National Archives at Riverside.

T/Sgt. F. Helms Catcher Softball Team; 569.6 Publicity III 07–08/1944 [1/2];Central Subject Files, compiled 1941–1946; War Department. Office of the Chief of Transportation. Los Angeles Port of Embarkation. (06/11/1946–09/18/1947); Records of the Office of the Chief of Transportation, Record Group 336; National Archives at Riverside.

Chapter 5—Breaking Down Barriers:

Photograph of Camp Anza Softball Team, 06/07/1944; 569.6 General III Mar.-June 1944, Central Subject Files, 1941–1946; Records of the Office of the Chief of Transportation, Record Group 336; National Archives at Riverside.

Photograph of Sgt. Neely, player on Camp Anza Softball Team, 07/06/1945; 569.6 Publicity IX April–Aug. 1945, Central Subject Files, 1941–1946; Records of the Office of the Chief of Transportation, Record Group 336; National Archives at Riverside.

Photograph of Camp Ross Baseball Team, 07/14/1945; 569.6 Publicity IX April–Aug. 1945, Central Subject Files, 1941–1946; Records of the Office of the Chief of Transportation, Record Group 336; National Archives at Riverside.

Jackie Robinson in his Brooklyn Dodgers Uniform, 1950; Master File Photographs of U.S. and Foreign Personalities, World Events, and American Economic, Social, and Cultural Life, compiled ca. 1953–ca. 1994; Records of the U.S. Information Agency, Record Group 306; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier 6802718)

General Court Martial Orders Number 130, Headquarters XXII Corps, 08/23/1944; Official Military Personnel Files, compiled 1912–1998; Records of the Army Staff, Record Group 319; National Archives at St. Louis. (National Archives Identifier 2641509)

Telegram to E. Frederick Morrow, Presidential Assistant to President Dwight D. Eisenhower from Jackie Robinson, 08/13/1957; White House Central Files (Eisenhower Administration), 1953–1961; Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library.

Letter to Jackie Robinson to President Eisenhower, 05/13/1958. Negro Matters - Colored Question (6), 1957–1958 ; Official Files, compiled 1953–1961, White House Central Files (Eisenhower Administration), 1953–1961; Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. (National Archives Identifier 186627)

Letter to President John F. Kennedy from Jackie Robinson, 02/09/1961; White House Staff Files of Harris Wofford, compiled 1961–1963; White House Staff Records (Kennedy Administration), 1960–1963; John Fitzgerald Kennedy Presidential Library.

Telegram from Jackie Robinson to President John F. Kennedy, 06/15/1963. White House Central Files, compiled 1961–1963; Presidential Papers of John F. Kennedy, 1961–1963; John Fitzgerald Kennedy Presidential Library.

Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. [Former National Baseball League player, Jackie Robinson with his son.], 08/28/1963; Miscellaneous Subjects, Staff and Stringer Photographs, compiled 1961–1974; Records of the U.S. Information Agency, Record Group 306; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier 542024)

Letter from Jackie Robinson to President Lyndon B. Johnson, 04/18/1967; White House Subject Files on Human Rights, compiled 11/22/1963–01/20/1969; White House Central Files (Johnson Administration), 11/22/1963– 01/20/1969; Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library.

Letter to Roland L. Elliott, Deputy Special Assistant to President Richard Nixon from Jackie Robinson, 04/20/1972; White House Alpha (Alphabetical) Name Files, (Nixon Administration), 1969–1974, Richard Nixon Presidential Library.

Chapter 6—Diamonds and Dollars:

Letter to Bowie K. Kuhn, Commissioner of Baseball from Curtis C. Flood stating that he had the right to consider offers from other baseball clubs before signing a contract, 12/24/1969; Curtis C. Flood vs. Bowie K. Kuhn, et. al., 01/16/1970–08/25/1970; Civil Case Files, compiled 1930–1968; U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York; Records of District Courts of the United States, Record Group 21; National Archives at New York. (National Archives Identifier: 278312)

Letter to Curtis Flood from Bowie K. Kuhn, Commissioner of Baseball stating that Flood was bound by his contract and the agreement negotiated by the Players Association, 12/30/1969; Curtis C. Flood vs. Bowie K. Kuhn, et. al., 01/16/1970–08/25/1970; Civil Case Files, compiled 1930–1968; U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York; Record Group 21: Records of District Courts of the United States, 1685 – 2004; National Archives at New York. (National Archives Identifier: 278313)

Notice to Player of Release or Transfer, a form used to notify Curtis Charles Flood that his contract was assigned to the Philadelphia baseball club, 10/08/1969; Curtis C. Flood vs. Bowie K. Kuhn, et. al., 01/16/1970–08/25/1970; Civil Case Files, compiled 1930–1968; U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York; Records of District Courts of the United States, Record Group 21; National Archives at New York. (National Archives Identifier: 278310)

Letter to Curtis C. Flood from Bing Devine, General Manager of the St. Louis Cardinals notifying Flood that his contract was assigned to Philadelphia,10/08/1969; Curtis C. Flood vs. Bowie K. Kuhn, et. al., 01/16/1970–08/25/1970; Civil Case Files, compiled 1930–1968; U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York; Records of District Courts of the United States, Record Group 21; National Archives at New York. (National Archives Identifier: 278311)

Page 47 of Opinion of United States District Court Judge Irving Ben Cooper concluding that although the reserve clause was contentious, the Court was bound by law and ruled in favor of the Defendants, 08/12/1970; Curtis C. Flood vs. Bowie K. Kuhn, et. al., 01/16/1970–08/25/1970; Civil Case Files, compiled 1930–1968; U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York; Records of District Courts of the United States, Record Group 21; National Archives at New York. (National Archives Identifier: 278327)

Joseph B. Tinker Affidavit, 01/09/1915; The Federal League of Professional Baseball Clubs vs. The American League of Professional Baseball Clubs, et. al., 1915; Equity Case Files, compiled 1913–1938; U.S. District Court for the Eastern (Chicago) Division of the Northern District of Illinois. (3/3/1905–); Records of District Courts of the United States, Record Group 21; National Archives at Chicago. (National Archives Identifier: 6720644)

President's Statement on Baseball Strike, 01/26/1995, Folder 02/26/1994, Press Releases Master Set, Office of the Press Secretary, Clinton Presidential Records.

Video of President Clinton's Remarks Regarding the 1994–1995 MLB Strike, 02/07/1995, Video Recordings of the White House Television Office (Clinton Administration), 01/20/1993–01/20/2001, William J. Clinton Presidential Library. (Available from the Clinton Presidential Library & Museum at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tZd1XJhjEUI.)

Remarks by the President After Meeting with Baseball Representatives, 02/07/1995, [http://clinton6.nara.gov/1995/02/1995-02-07-remarks-by-president-on-meeting-with-baseball-reps.html] Clinton Presidential Materials Project, National Archives and Records Administration.

Chapter 7—For the Love of the Game:

The White House. 02/25/2007. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/baseball/photoessay/02.html (The George W. Bush White House website was frozen at noon on January 20, 2009. It is archived on servers with National Archives-affiliated archives at the University of North Texas, available at http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. Visitors can navigate just as they would have done when the site was live. However, links to external websites and some internal pages will not work.)

President Franklin D. Roosevelt Throwing a Baseball at Griffith Stadium, Washington, DC, 04/24/1934. Photographs of Franklin D. Roosevelt, compiled 1882–1945; Franklin D. Roosevelt Library Photographs, 1870–2004; Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library. (National Archives Identifier 6728515)

President John F. Kennedy Throws the First Pitch of the 1962 Baseball Season, 04/09/1962; Abbie Rowe White House Photographs, compiled 12/06/1960–03/11/1964; White House Photographs, 12/19/1960–03/11/1964; John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. (National Archives Identifier 6817167)

President Reagan Throwing out the First Pitch at a Baseball Game between the Chicago Cubs and Pittsburgh Pirates at Wrigley Field in Chicago, Illinois, 09/30/198; Reagan White House Photographs, compiled 01/20/1981–01/20/1989; White House Photographic Collection, 01/20/1981–01/20/1989; Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. (National Archives Identifier 6728673)

George Bush, captain of the Yale baseball team, receives Babe Ruth's manuscript of his autobiography which he was donating to Yale, 1948; George H.W. Bush Presidential Photographs, compiled 01/20/1989–01/20/1993;Records of the White House Photograph Office, 01/20/1989–01/20/1993; George H.W. Bush Presidential Library. (National Archives Identifier 186375)

Photograph of President Truman shaking hands with Washington manager Ossie Bluege and New York Yankees manager Bucky Harris at Washington's Griffith Stadium, on opening day of the baseball season., 04/18/1947; Photographs Relating to the Administration, Family and Personal Life of Harry S. Truman, compiled 1957-2004; Audiovisual Collection, 1957-2006;  Harry S. Truman Presidential Library. (National Archives Identifier 199579)

President Bush Presents the Presidential Medal of Freedom Award to Baseball Legend Henry Aaron, 07/09/2002; Photographs Related to the George W. Bush Administration, compiled 01/20/2001–01/20/2009; Records of the White House Photo Office (George W. Bush Administration), 01/20/2001–01/20/2009; George W. Bush Presidential Library. (National Archives Identifier 6734115)

Photograph of Bess Truman and Margaret Truman casting their votes for players to appear in Major League Baseball's All-Star Game, probably at Griffith Stadium in Washington., 06/24/1953; Photographs Relating to the Administration, Family, and Personal Life of Harry S. Truman, compiled 1957–2004; Audiovisual Collection, 1957–2006; Harry S. Truman Presidential Library. (National Archives Identifier 200441)

First Lady Barbara Bush Throws the Ceremonial First Pitch of a Texas Rangers Baseball Game, Dallas, TX, 05/05/1989; George H.W. Bush Presidential Photographs, compiled 01/20/1989–01/20/1993; Records of the White House Photograph Office, 01/20/1989–01/20/1993. George H.W. Bush Presidential Library. (National Archives Identifier 6728214)

Digital Audio Recording Containing a Recording of a Weekly Radio Address made by President William Jefferson Clinton, 10/21/1995; Audio Recordings Relating to William J. Clinton, Audio Recordings of the White House Communications Agency (Clinton Administration), 01/20/1993–01/20/2001, William J. Clinton Presidential Library, http://www.clintonlibrary.gov/assets/storage/Research-AV/audio/1995/OCT/PP_ROTP_RadioAddress_21Oct1995.mp3

William J. Clinton: "The President's Radio Address," 10/21/1995. Online from the Government Printing Office, [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/WCPD-1995-10-30/html/WCPD-1995-10-30-Pg1900.htm]

7th-Inning Stretch:

Bob Bescher, Cincinnati Reds, National League Baseball Card; Records of the U.S. Attorneys, Record Group 118; National Archives at Seattle.

Frank Chance, Chicago Cubs, National League, Baseball Card; Records of the U.S. Attorneys, Record Group 118; National Archives at Seattle.

Wid Conroy, Washington Senators, American League Baseball Card; Records of the U.S. Attorneys, Record Group 118; National Archives at Seattle.

Russ Ford, New York Yankees, American League Baseball Card; Records of the U.S. Attorneys, Record Group 118; National Archives at Seattle.

John McGraw, New York Giants, National League Baseball Card; Records of the U.S. Attorneys, Record Group 118; National Archives at Seattle.

Orval Overall, Chicago Cubs, National League Baseball Card; Records of the U.S. Attorneys, Record Group 118; National Archives at Seattle.

Back of Baseball Card; Records of the U.S. Attorneys, Record Group 118; National Archives at Seattle.

Russian children display baseball cards, a gift from visiting American sailors, as they pose for a photograph in Revolution Square. Crew members from the high endurance cutter USCGC CHASE (WHEC-718) and the guided missile frigate USS MCCLUSKY (FFG-41) are visiting Vladivostok, 09/21/1992; Combined Military Service Digital Photographic Files, compiled 1982–2007, documenting the period ca. 1786–2007; Records of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, Record Group 330; National Archives at College Park. (National Archives Identifier: 6483271).

Chapter 8—Equal Access:

Letter from William F. Anhut, President Ypsilanti American Little League to Creighton J. Hale, Executive Vice President and Chairman Charter Committee of Little League Baseball, Inc. 05/17/1973; Carolyn King, by Gerald King, her Next Friend, Ypsilanti Community American Little League, and the City of Ypsilanti vs. Little League Baseball, Inc., Case 40304; Civil Case Files, compiled 1938–1993; U.S. District Court for the Southern (Detroit) Division of the Eastern District of Michigan. (04/30/1894–); Records of District Courts of the United States, Record Group 21; National Archives at Chicago.

Portion of Court Transcript, including testimony of Dr. Creighton J. Hale, 07/02/1973; Carolyn King, by Gerald King, her Next Friend, Ypsilanti Community American Little League, and the City of Ypsilanti vs. Little League Baseball, Inc., Case 40304; Civil Case Files, compiled 1938–1993; U.S. District Court for the Southern (Detroit) Division of the Eastern District of Michigan. (04/30/1894–); Records of District Courts of the United States, Record Group 21; National Archives at Chicago.

Portion of Deposition of Dr. Louis P. Kivin, 6/27/1973; Carolyn King, by Gerald King, her Next Friend, Ypsilanti Community American Little League, and the City of Ypsilanti vs. Little League Baseball, Inc., Case 40304; Civil Case Files, compiled 1938–1993; U.S. District Court for the Southern (Detroit) Division of the Eastern District of Michigan. (04/30/1894–); Records of District Courts of the United States, Record Group 21; National Archives at Chicago.

Portion of Complaint; Melissa Ludtke and Time, Incorporated vs. Bowie Kuhn, Commissioner of Baseball, et al., Case 77C6301; Civil Case Files, compiled 1930–1968; U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York; Records of District Courts of the United States, Record Group 21; National Archives at New York.

Order and Judgement; Melissa Ludtke and Time, Incorporated vs. Bowie Kuhn, Commissioner of Baseball, et al., Case 77C6301; Civil Case Files, compiled 1930–1968; U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York; Records of District Courts of the United States, Record Group 21; National Archives at New York.

Memo to the President from Ken Cole Regarding Enrolled Bill H.R. 8864, Little League Baseball, 12/26/1974; H.R. 8864 Little League Baseball, 12/1974–12/1974; Legislation Case Files, compiled 08/09/1974–01/20/1977; President (1974–1977: Ford). White House Records Office. (1974–1977); Collection GRF-0055: White House Records Office: Legislation Case Files, 08/09/1974–01/20/1977; Gerald Ford Presidential Library, Ann Arbor.

Chapter 9—Saving the Integrity of the Game:

Transcript of ''Restoring Faith in America's Pastime: Evaluating Major League Baseball's Efforts to Eradicate Steroid Use'' Hearing, 03/17/2005. Records of the United States House of Representatives, Record Group 233; Center for Legislative Archives, National Archives Building, Washington, DC.