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Organizational Change: An Annotated Bibliography
Strategic Planning

  1. Agencies' strategic plans under GPRA: key questions to facilitate Congressional review. GAO\GGD-10.1.16. Washington: General Accounting Office, 1997. 35 pp. BPR228; also shelved at JK468.P75U54 1997. Also available at http://www.gao.gov/special.pubs/gpraqu.pdf (PDF only).
    At the request of the Chairmen of the Government Reform and Oversight Committee, Committee on Appropriations, and Committee on the Budget in the House of Representatives, GAO developed a set of key initial questions to help Congress determine how strategic plans can be improved to better support congressional and agency decisionmaking.

  2. Albrecht, Karl. The northbound train: finding the purpose, setting the direction, shaping the destiny of your organization. New York: American Management Association, 1994. 213 pp. (Shleved at HD58.9.A447 1994).
    1/98 version: This book is about vision, meaning, and strategy, as well as the leadership that's essential in building a culture that can transform those powerful ideas into reality.

  3. Atkinson, Anthony J., John H. Waterhouse and Robert B. Wells. A stakeholder approach to strategic performance measurement. Sloan Management Review 38, no.3 (Spring 1997): 25-37.
    A model for measuring an organization's performance helps all members - customers, suppliers, employees, and community - understand and evaluate their contributions and expectations. By focusing on the secondary processes for achieving primary objectives, such as profit, the system provides a tool for monitoring implicit and explicit contractual relationships with stakeholders (version of article summary).

  4. Atkinson, Anthony A., John H. Waterhouse and Robert B. Wells. A stakeholder approach to strategic performance measurement. Sloan Management Review 38, no.3 (Spring 1997): Reprint 3832.(Abstract and order link at http://web.mit.edu/smr-online/past/spring97/index.html
    At the request of the Chairmen of the Government Reform and Oversight Committee, Committee on Appropriations, and Committee on the Budget in the House of Representatives, GAO developed a set of key initial questions to help Congress determine how strategic plans can be improved to better support congressional and agency decisionmaking.

  5. Balkcom, John E., Christopher D. Ittner and David F. Larcker. Strategic performance measurement: lessons learned and future directions. Journal of Strategic Performance Measurement 1, no.2 (April-May 1997): 22-32.
    While performance measurement systems have played a key role in developing strategic plans, achieving strategic objectives, and motivating managers, many managers feel that their existing measurement systems do not satisfactorily fulfill these functions. According to one survey, six out of ten respondents reported they were either overhauling or replacing their performance systems. Over the past decades, a number of new measurement innovations have been adopted as companies search to solve their measurement problems. This article looks at the lessons learned and offers some ideas for future directions in strategic performance measurements (Article's executive summary)

  6. Boar, Bernard H. The role of commitment in information technology strategy. Journal of Strategic Performance Measurement 1, no.6 (December 1997): 5-13.
    1/98 version: A successful information technology strategy requires the ability to constantly refresh the technology and shift direction when necessary. This constant shifting requires a strong commitment to the strategy from employees, and to get that strong commitment a well thought-out and proactive commitment strategy is needed. Three types of commitment are needed to make the information technology strategy work: intellectual commitment, emotional commitment, and political commitment. The eight-step commitment strategy outlined in this article will help management find out where commitment problems exist and take action to resolve those problems (Executive summary

  7. Brown, Tom. Turning mission statements into action. Harvard Management Update 2, no.9 (September 1997): 4-6.
    The author stresses the point that mission statements are not the end product and that turning mission statements into action involves aligning people behind key goals.

  8. Campbell, Andrew and Marcus Alexander. What's wrong with strategy? Insights about value creation rarely emerge from planning processes. Harvard Business Review 75, no.6 (November-December 1997): 42+.
    In this study of the way that strategy is developed, the authors first note that directionless strategies result when strategists fail to distinguish between purpose (what an organization exists to do) and constraints (what an organization must do in order to survive). Secondly, they assert that it is unclear which should come first: objectives or strategies to achieve the objectives? Finally, according to Campbell and Alexander, the basic ingredient of a good strategy - insight into how to create value - rarely results from planning sessions. The answer to developing good strategy is to understand the benefit of having a well-articulated, stable purpose and the importance of discovering and exploiting insights about how to create more value as an organization.

  9. Canary, Hal W. Linking strategic plans with budgets. Government Finance Review (April 1992): 21-24.
    The author offers an approach to linking the strategic plan to the budget where programs and projects must be related to the goals and objectives stated in the strategic plan in order to accomplish the goals outlined in those plans.

  10. Christenson, Lucille. Case study S9-Integration of business plan, strategic plan, customer service plan, unit self assessment and employee performance appraisals. Washington: American Society for Public Administration, 1996. 8 pp.
    This case study describes the development of a quality management plan by Washington State offices. The managers were able to adapt many measures from their business plan and submit them as budget measures although they did not find many outcome or efficiency measures. The indicators used to set employee goals made it possible to present clear expectations as well as a clear way to measure progress.

  11. Courtney, Hugh, Jane Kirkland and Patrick Viguerie. Strategy under uncertainty. Harvard Business Review 75, no.6 (November-December 1997): 67+.
    It is important not to underestimate uncertainty when shaping strategy, according to the authors, who present a framework for determining the level of uncertainty surrounding strategic decisions and for tailoring strategy to that level of uncertainty. In practice, they have found that the uncertainty facing most strategic-decision makers falls into four broad levels: a clear-enough future, alternate futures, a range of futures, and true ambiguity wherein it is virtually impossible to predict. The authors introduce a basic vocabulary for talking about strategies: three strategic postures including shaping, adapting, or reserving the right to play; and three types of actions to implement strategy: big bets, options, and no-regrets moves. The choice of a strategic posture and accompanying actions can be highly dependent on the level of uncertainty facing the organization. This article offers scenarios illustrating the range of strategic challenges.

  12. Feigenbaum, Armand V. No pain, no gain (strategic planning and management). Chief Executive no. 121(March 1997): 36+.
    Strong organizations have a respect for the increasingly knowledgeable customer and tend to focus on the continuous improvement of business efficiencies.

  13. Greenberg, Jeanne and Michael Liebman. Incentives: the missing link in strategic performance. Journal of Business Strategy 11, no.4 (July-August 1990): 8+.
    In order to meet organizational objectives, it is important to develop incentive strategies to motivate management.

  14. Heifetz, Ronald A. Leadership without easy answers. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press, 1996. 348 pp.
    According to Heifetz, leadership requires knowing the social system well enough to predict how stressful the challenge facing it will be and how capably the system will absorb the stress. In addition, the leader must have the critical capacity to manage oneself in order to lead others to adapt. Leaders are those who take responsibility for the "holding environment" of the organization: to do so requires that the leader maintains his or her own perspective by alternating between participating and observing; distinguishing self from role; externalizing the conflict; using partners; listening, using oneself as data; finding a sanctuary; and preserving a sense of purpose.

  15. Information technology investment: agencies can improve performance, reduce costs, and minimize risks. GAO\AIMD-96-64. Washington: General Accounting Office, 1996. 75 pp. (Shelved at JK468.A8U54 1996b. Also available at http://www.gao.gov/AIndexFY96/abstracts/ai96064.htm).
    This book reports findings that agencies prioritize IT projects in alignment with key strategic mission goals and attempt to integrate IT funding decisions with overall strategic business planning and direction. Appendix III, "Description of an information technology investment process approach", is a compilation of material on how federal agencies should manage information systems using an investment process based upon analysis of the IT management best practices found in leading private and public sector organizations.

  16. Ittner, Christopher D. and David F. Larcker. Quality strategy, strategic control systems, and organizational performance. Accounting, Organizations and Society 22, no.3-4 (April-May 1997): 293+.
    This study demonstrates that organizations emphasizing quality initiatives in their strategic plans tend to use more quality-related strategic control practices in their activities.

  17. Kuhn, Jerry A. and Tena Carson Figgins. You need a strategic plan to win. Journal for quality and participation 17, no.4 (July-August 1994): 44-48.
    This article is on designing and implementing organizational change. If the organization described here sounds like yours, the strategic planning process experience may help you in designing and implementing your own planned organizational change.

  18. Markides, Constantinos. Strategic innovation. Sloan Management Review 38, no.3 (Spring 1997): 9+. (Abstract and order link at http://web.mit.edu/smr-online/past/spring97/index.html).
    The author studied leaders in their fields and identified five ways they handle their game plans: 1) the organization redefines its purpose; 2) the organization identifies its appropriate customers and their priorities in order to choose a niche that will grow; 3) the organization decides what products or services it should provide and whom to target; 4) the organization must define its core competencies and build on them; and 5) the organization must broaden its perspective and change its angle of focus

  19. McNamara, Carlton P. Organizational excellence. Business & Economic Review (University of South Carolina) 43, no.4 (July-September 1997): 19+. (Shelved at BPR216; accessible online at http://research.badm.sc.edu/research/bereview/be43_4/mcnamara.htm).
    This article asserts that, in order to be successful, organizations must establish a flexible but clear strategic direction with a team-based organizational concept and supporting processes and systems in place. They must also show a relentless commitment to the intangibles of leadership style, human resource planning, company values. According to the author, the bottom line is that organizational excellence demands a new leadership style. As a result of that leadership, the most successful organizations create a special culture with a unique blend of values, beliefs, tools, and language. This article offers a lot of good information illustrated with quotes from business leaders; one from John F. Welch, CEO of GE, calls for an organization with the "type of liberated, involved, excited, boundary-less culture that is present in successful start-up enterprises". Isn't that where we would all like to work?

  20. Meyer, Marshall W. Dilemmas of performance measurement. Journal of Strategic Performance Measurement 1, no.2 (April-May 1997): 33-42.
    The problem with choosing measures is endemic in firms today; there is a problem with choosing a small number of measures, the so-called Hank Moles problem. The difficulty is knowing what to measure. Firms have barely begun to understand how to measure organizational performance. This article outlines some key dilemmas of measuring performance, which follow from the peculiar nature of performance in organizations. The pecularity of organizations is that their performance lies in the future and largely beyond the reach of measurement (Article's executive summary)

  21. Mintzberg, Henry and James Brian Quinn. The strategy process: concepts, context and cases. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996. 990 pp.
    This collection of readings includes some exciting new concepts: core competency strategies, strategic outsourcing, managing with new digital technologies; managing hypercompetition; addressing global dimensions of today's major strategy issues; global competition, high technology concepts, new organizational forms, and the cross functional aspects of strategic management.

  22. MWR strategic business planning guidebook. n.d.: Army Morale, Welfare, and Recreation (MWR), 1996. Looseleaf. (Shelved at HD30.28.M2 1996).
    The guidebook and its appendix, "Preparing a strategic business plan handbook", were created to provide planning teams with easy-to-follow roadmaps for efficiently and effectively preparing their strategic planning process. The guidebook is the primary reference for developing the strategic plan and conducting periodic reviews to keep it updated. The handbook offers more specific detail, if needed.

  23. Newton, Peggy. Communicating key measures throughout an organization. Journal of Strategic Performance Measurement 1, no.1 (February-March 1997): 34-38.
    A division of Honeywell is noted for its ability to communicate key measures throughout the organization. First, key business drivers are identified, then goals and measures are linked to them at every level. Communication revolves around goals with each employee's actions linked to company-wide goals. A continuous improvement control board is used to drive the strategic priorities down through all levels of the organization.

  24. O'Brien, William F. Action-oriented strategic planning: dynamic planning for dynamic times. Journal of Strategic Performance Measurement 1, no.3 (June-July 1997): 19-26.
    Strategic planning is a critical component in creating an entity's goals and operational direction. It often, however, remains behind closed doors, limited to the involvement of a few senior line executives. This article presents a strategic planning approach that opens the process to an entity's experienced managers, and thus makes the effort more conducive to a follow-through. This process, moreover, can be useful as a model for those who have had limited strategic planning experience (Article executive summary, p.19)

  25. Orlikowski, Wanda J. and J. Debra Hofman. An improvisational model for change management: the case of groupware technologies. Sloan Management Review 38, no.2 (Winter 1997): 11+. (Abstract and order link at http://web.mit.edu/smr-online/past/winter97/index.html).
    The authors note that organizational change associated with the adoption of new technology is ongoing and it is impossible to anticipate all possible changes. They identify three kinds of change: anticipated changes which occur as planned; emergent changes which arise during the process; and opportunity-based changes which emerge in response to problems and/or opportunities.

  26. Porter, Michael E. Competitive strategy: techniques for analyzing industries and competitors. New York: Free Press, 1980. xx, 396 pp. (Shelved at HD41.P67 1980).
    1/98 version: This book was written for managers seeking to improve the performance of their organizations, including government officials seeking to understand competition in order to formulate public policy.

  27. Preparing a strategic business plan: handbook. n.d.: Army Morale, Welfare, and Recreation (MWR), 1996. Looseleaf. (Shelved at HD30.38.P7 1996).
    This handbook offers basic tenets of developing a properly conceived and documented strategic business plan concentrating on a basic planning model with six steps: objectively sense the environment; gather and analyze pertinent and objective data; identify and evaluate alternatives; decide what to do; implement the decision; monitor the performance and take corrective action if needed.

  28. Purser, Ronald E. and Steven Cabana. Involve employees at every level of strategic planning. Quality Progress 30, no.5 (May 1997): 66-71.
    This article is on the Search Conference method whereby a group of employees collectively creates a strategic plan that its members will implement.

  29. Smith, Perry M., Jerrold P. Allen, John H. Stewart and F. Douglas Whitehouse. Creating strategic vision: long-range planning for national security. Washington: National Defense University Press, 1987. 133 pp. (Shelved at U153.C74 1987).
    1/98 version: Long-range planning was the subject of a year-long study by a National Defense University research seminar. The four essays in this book emerged from that seminar; the essays guide the reader to a realistic understanding of long-range planning and suggest ways to think creatively and pragmatically about the future.

  30. Stenzel, Catherine and Joe Stenzel. Re-visioning the organization: the good king. Journal of Strategic Performance Measurement 1, no.1 (February-March 1997): 39-44.
    This article explores the critical elements involved in establishing an organizational framework of strategically aligned performance measurements and the need to engage everyone in the organization into the importance of goals.

  31. Stenzel, Catherine and Joe Stenzel. Revisioning the organization: the King goes to war. Journal of Strategic Performance Measurement 1, no.3 (June-July 1997): 41-47.
    This column examines the critical elements in establishing an organizational framework of strategically aligned performance measures.

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